ndarray, the basic container

The ndarray is the underlying container of numerical data. It can be thought of as micropython’s own array object, but has a great number of extra features starting with how it can be initialised, which operations can be done on it, and which functions can accept it as an argument. One important property of an ndarray is that it is also a proper micropython iterable.

The ndarray consists of a short header, and a pointer that holds the data. The pointer always points to a contiguous segment in memory (numpy is more flexible in this regard), and the header tells the interpreter, how the data from this segment is to be read out, and what the bytes mean. Some operations, e.g., reshape, are fast, because they do not operate on the data, they work on the header, and therefore, only a couple of bytes are manipulated, even if there are a million data entries. A more detailed exposition of how operators are implemented can be found in the section titled Programming ulab.

Since the ndarray is a binary container, it is also compact, meaning that it takes only a couple of bytes of extra RAM in addition to what is required for storing the numbers themselves. ndarrays are also type-aware, i.e., one can save RAM by specifying a data type, and using the smallest reasonable one. Five such types are defined, namely uint8, int8, which occupy a single byte of memory per datum, uint16, and int16, which occupy two bytes per datum, and float, which occupies four or eight bytes per datum. The precision/size of the float type depends on the definition of mp_float_t. Some platforms, e.g., the PYBD, implement doubles, but some, e.g., the pyboard.v.11, don’t. You can find out, what type of float your particular platform implements by looking at the output of the .itemsize class property.

In addition to the five above-mentioned numerical types, it is also possible to define Boolean arrays, which can be used in the indexing of data. However, Boolean arrays are really nothing but arrays of type uint8 with an extra flag.

On the following pages, we will see how one can work with ndarrays. Those familiar with numpy should find that the nomenclature and naming conventions of numpy are adhered to as closely as possible. We will point out the few differences, where necessary.

For the sake of comparison, in addition to the ulab code snippets, sometimes the equivalent numpy code is also presented. You can find out, where the snippet is supposed to run by looking at its first line, the header of the code block.

The ndinfo function

A concise summary of a couple of the properties of an ndarray can be printed out by calling the ndinfo function. In addition to finding out what the shape and strides of the array array, we also get the itemsize, as well as the type. An interesting piece of information is the data pointer, which tells us, what the address of the data segment of the ndarray is. We will see the significance of this in the section Slicing and indexing.

Note that this function simply prints some information, but does not return anything. If you need to get a handle of the data contained in the printout, you should call the dedicated shape, strides, or itemsize functions directly.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(5), dtype=np.float)
b = np.array(range(25), dtype=np.uint8).reshape((5, 5))
np.ndinfo(a)
print('\n')
np.ndinfo(b)
class: ndarray
shape: (5,)
strides: (8,)
itemsize: 8
data pointer: 0x7f2bafabd220
type: float


class: ndarray
shape: (5, 5)
strides: (5, 1)
itemsize: 1
data pointer: 0x7f2bafabd3a0
type: uint8

Initialising an array

A new array can be created by passing either a standard micropython iterable, or another ndarray into the constructor.

Initialising by passing iterables

If the iterable is one-dimensional, i.e., one whose elements are numbers, then a row vector will be created and returned. If the iterable is two-dimensional, i.e., one whose elements are again iterables, a matrix will be created. If the lengths of the iterables are not consistent, a ValueError will be raised. Iterables of different types can be mixed in the initialisation function.

If the dtype keyword with the possible uint8/int8/uint16/int16/float values is supplied, the new ndarray will have that type, otherwise, it assumes float as default.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
b = np.array(a)

print("a:\t", a)
print("b:\t", b)

# a two-dimensional array with mixed-type initialisers
c = np.array([range(5), range(20, 25, 1), [44, 55, 66, 77, 88]], dtype=np.uint8)
print("\nc:\t", c)

# and now we throw an exception
d = np.array([range(5), range(10), [44, 55, 66, 77, 88]], dtype=np.uint8)
print("\nd:\t", d)
a:   [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
b:   array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0], dtype=float)

c:   array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
    [20, 21, 22, 23, 24],
    [44, 55, 66, 77, 88]], dtype=uint8)

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/dev/shm/micropython.py", line 15, in <module>
ValueError: iterables are not of the same length

Initialising by passing arrays

An ndarray can be initialised by supplying another array. This statement is almost trivial, since ndarrays are iterables themselves, though it should be pointed out that initialising through arrays is a bit faster. This statement is especially true, if the dtypes of the source and output arrays are the same, because then the contents can simply be copied without further ado. While type conversion is also possible, it will always be slower than straight copying.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
b = np.array(a)
c = np.array(b)
d = np.array(b, dtype=np.uint8)

print("a:\t", a)
print("\nb:\t", b)
print("\nc:\t", c)
print("\nd:\t", d)
a:   [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]

b:   array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0], dtype=float)

c:   array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0], dtype=float)

d:   array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8], dtype=uint8)

Note that the default type of the ndarray is float. Hence, if the array is initialised from another array, type conversion will always take place, except, when the output type is specifically supplied. I.e.,

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(5), dtype=np.uint8)
b = np.array(a)
print("a:\t", a)
print("\nb:\t", b)
a:   array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=uint8)

b:   array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0], dtype=float)

will iterate over the elements in a, since in the assignment b = np.array(a) no output type was given, therefore, float was assumed. On the other hand,

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(5), dtype=np.uint8)
b = np.array(a, dtype=np.uint8)
print("a:\t", a)
print("\nb:\t", b)
a:   array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=uint8)

b:   array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=uint8)

will simply copy the content of a into b without any iteration, and will, therefore, be faster. Keep this in mind, whenever the output type, or performance is important.

Array initialisation functions

There are seven functions that can be used for initialising an array. These are bound to ulab itself at the top level, i.e., no module has to be imported for the function invocations.

arange

numpy: https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.arange.html

The function returns a one-dimensional array with evenly spaced values. Takes 3 positional arguments (two are optional), and the dtype keyword argument.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab

print(ulab.arange(10))
print(ulab.arange(2, 10))
print(ulab.arange(2, 10, 3))
print(ulab.arange(2, 10, 3, dtype=ulab.float))
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], dtype=int16)
array([2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], dtype=int16)
array([2, 5, 8], dtype=int16)
array([2.0, 5.0, 8.0], dtype=float)

concatenate

numpy: https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.concatenate.html

The function joins a sequence of arrays, if they are compatible in shape, if all shapes except the one along the joining axis are equal.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(25), dtype=np.uint8).reshape((5, 5))
b = np.array(range(15), dtype=np.uint8).reshape((3, 5))

c = np.concatenate((a, b), axis=0)
print(c)
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
    [5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
    [10, 11, 12, 13, 14],
    [15, 16, 17, 18, 19],
    [20, 21, 22, 23, 24],
    [0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
    [5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
    [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]], dtype=uint8)

WARNING: numpy accepts arbitrary dtypes in the sequence of arrays, in ulab the dtypes must be identical. If you want to concatenate different types, you have to convert all arrays to the same type first. Here b is of float type, so it cannot directly be concatenated to a. However, if we cast the dtype of b, the concatenation works:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(25), dtype=np.uint8).reshape((5, 5))
b = np.array(range(15), dtype=np.float).reshape((5, 3))
d = np.array(b+1, dtype=np.uint8)
print('a: ', a)
print('='*20 + '\nd: ', d)
c = np.concatenate((d, a), axis=1)
print('='*20 + '\nc: ', c)
a:  array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
    [5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
    [10, 11, 12, 13, 14],
    [15, 16, 17, 18, 19],
    [20, 21, 22, 23, 24]], dtype=uint8)
====================
d:  array([[1, 2, 3],
    [4, 5, 6],
    [7, 8, 9],
    [10, 11, 12],
    [13, 14, 15]], dtype=uint8)
====================
c:  array([[1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
    [4, 5, 6, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
    [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14],
    [10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19],
    [13, 14, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]], dtype=uint8)

eye

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.eye.html

Another special array method is the eye function, whose call signature is

eye(N, M, k=0, dtype=float)

where N (M) specify the dimensions of the matrix (if only N is supplied, then we get a square matrix, otherwise one with M rows, and N columns), and k is the shift of the ones (the main diagonal corresponds to k=0). Here are a couple of examples.

With a single argument

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

print(np.eye(5))
array([[1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
       [0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
       [0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0],
       [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0],
       [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]], dtype=float)

Specifying the dimensions of the matrix

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

print(np.eye(4, M=6, k=-1, dtype=np.int16))
array([[0, 0, 0, 0],
       [1, 0, 0, 0],
       [0, 1, 0, 0],
       [0, 0, 1, 0],
       [0, 0, 0, 1],
       [0, 0, 0, 0]], dtype=int16)
# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

print(np.eye(4, M=6, dtype=np.int8))
array([[1, 0, 0, 0],
       [0, 1, 0, 0],
       [0, 0, 1, 0],
       [0, 0, 0, 1],
       [0, 0, 0, 0],
       [0, 0, 0, 0]], dtype=int8)

full

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.full.html

The function returns an array of arbitrary dimension, whose elements are all equal to the second positional argument. The first argument is a tuple describing the shape of the tensor. The dtype keyword argument with a default value of float can also be supplied.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

# create an array with the default type
print(np.full((2, 4), 3))

print('\n' + '='*20 + '\n')
# the array type is uint8 now
print(np.full((2, 4), 3, dtype=np.uint8))
array([[3.0, 3.0, 3.0, 3.0],
    [3.0, 3.0, 3.0, 3.0]], dtype=float)

====================

array([[3, 3, 3, 3],
    [3, 3, 3, 3]], dtype=uint8)

linspace

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.linspace.html

This function returns an array, whose elements are uniformly spaced between the start, and stop points. The number of intervals is determined by the num keyword argument, whose default value is 50. With the endpoint keyword argument (defaults to True) one can include stop in the sequence. In addition, the dtype keyword can be supplied to force type conversion of the output. The default is float. Note that, when dtype is of integer type, the sequence is not necessarily evenly spaced. This is not an error, rather a consequence of rounding. (This is also the numpy behaviour.)

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

# generate a sequence with defaults
print('default sequence:\t', np.linspace(0, 10))

# num=5
print('num=5:\t\t\t', np.linspace(0, 10, num=5))

# num=5, endpoint=False
print('num=5:\t\t\t', np.linspace(0, 10, num=5, endpoint=False))

# num=5, endpoint=False, dtype=uint8
print('num=5:\t\t\t', np.linspace(0, 5, num=7, endpoint=False, dtype=np.uint8))
default sequence:    array([0.0, 0.2040816396474838, 0.4081632792949677, ..., 9.591833114624023, 9.795914649963379, 9.999996185302734], dtype=float)
num=5:                       array([0.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0], dtype=float)
num=5:                       array([0.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0], dtype=float)
num=5:                       array([0, 0, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4], dtype=uint8)

logspace

linspace’ equivalent for logarithmically spaced data is logspace. This function produces a sequence of numbers, in which the quotient of consecutive numbers is constant. This is a geometric sequence.

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.logspace.html

This function returns an array, whose elements are uniformly spaced between the start, and stop points. The number of intervals is determined by the num keyword argument, whose default value is 50. With the endpoint keyword argument (defaults to True) one can include stop in the sequence. In addition, the dtype keyword can be supplied to force type conversion of the output. The default is float. Note that, exactly as in linspace, when dtype is of integer type, the sequence is not necessarily evenly spaced in log space.

In addition to the keyword arguments found in linspace, logspace also accepts the base argument. The default value is 10.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

# generate a sequence with defaults
print('default sequence:\t', np.logspace(0, 3))

# num=5
print('num=5:\t\t\t', np.logspace(1, 10, num=5))

# num=5, endpoint=False
print('num=5:\t\t\t', np.logspace(1, 10, num=5, endpoint=False))

# num=5, endpoint=False
print('num=5:\t\t\t', np.logspace(1, 10, num=5, endpoint=False, base=2))
default sequence:    array([1.0, 1.151395399326447, 1.325711365590109, ..., 754.3120063354646, 868.5113737513561, 1000.000000000004], dtype=float)
num=5:                       array([10.0, 1778.279410038923, 316227.766016838, 56234132.5190349, 10000000000.0], dtype=float)
num=5:                       array([10.0, 630.9573444801933, 39810.71705534974, 2511886.431509581, 158489319.2461114], dtype=float)
num=5:                       array([2.0, 6.964404506368993, 24.25146506416637, 84.44850628946524, 294.066778879241], dtype=float)

ones, zeros

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.zeros.html

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.ones.html

A couple of special arrays and matrices can easily be initialised by calling one of the ones, or zeros functions. ones and zeros follow the same pattern, and have the call signature

ones(shape, dtype=float)
zeros(shape, dtype=float)

where shape is either an integer, or a 2-tuple.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

print(np.ones(6, dtype=np.uint8))
print(np.zeros((6, 4)))
array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1], dtype=uint8)
array([[0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
     [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
     [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
     [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
     [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0],
     [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0]], dtype=float)

Customising array printouts

ndarrays are pretty-printed, i.e., if the number of entries along the last axis is larger than 10 (default value), then only the first and last three entries will be printed. Also note that, as opposed to numpy, the printout always contains the dtype.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(200))
print("a:\t", a)
a:   array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, ..., 197.0, 198.0, 199.0], dtype=float)

set_printoptions

The default values can be overwritten by means of the set_printoptions function numpy.set_printoptions, which accepts two keywords arguments, the threshold, and the edgeitems. The first of these arguments determines the length of the longest array that will be printed in full, while the second is the number of items that will be printed on the left and right hand side of the ellipsis, if the array is longer than threshold.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(20))
print("a printed with defaults:\t", a)

np.set_printoptions(threshold=200)
print("\na printed in full:\t\t", a)

np.set_printoptions(threshold=10, edgeitems=2)
print("\na truncated with 2 edgeitems:\t", a)
a printed with defaults:     array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, ..., 17.0, 18.0, 19.0], dtype=float)

a printed in full:           array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0, 15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0], dtype=float)

a truncated with 2 edgeitems:        array([0.0, 1.0, ..., 18.0, 19.0], dtype=float)

get_printoptions

The set value of the threshold and edgeitems can be retrieved by calling the get_printoptions function with no arguments. The function returns a dictionary with two keys.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

np.set_printoptions(threshold=100, edgeitems=20)
print(np.get_printoptions())
{'threshold': 100, 'edgeitems': 20}

Methods and properties of ndarrays

Arrays have several properties that can queried, and some methods that can be called. With the exception of the flatten and transpose operators, properties return an object that describe some feature of the array, while the methods return a new array-like object.

.copy

The .copy method creates a new deep copy of an array, i.e., the entries of the source array are copied into the target array.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=np.int8)
b = a.copy()
print('a: ', a)
print('='*20)
print('b: ', b)
a:  array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int8)
====================
b:  array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int8)

.dtype

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.dtype.htm

The .dtype property returns the dtype of an array. This can then be used for initialising another array with the matching type. ulab implements two versions of dtype; one that is numpy-like, i.e., one, which returns a dtype object, and one that is significantly cheaper in terms of flash space, but does not define a the dtype object, and returns a single character (number) instead.

WARNING: in circuitpython:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=np.int8)
b = np.array([5, 6, 7], dtype=a.dtype)
print('a: ', a)
print('dtype of a: ', a.dtype)
print('\nb: ', b)
a:  array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int8)
dtype of a:  dtype('int8')

b:  array([5, 6, 7], dtype=int8)

WARNING: in micropython:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=np.int8)
b = np.array([5, 6, 7], dtype=a.dtype())
print('a: ', a)
print('dtype of a: ', a.dtype())
print('\nb: ', b)
a:  array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int8)
dtype of a:  dtype('int8')

b:  array([5, 6, 7], dtype=int8)

If the ulab.h header file sets the pre-processor constant ULAB_HAS_DTYPE_OBJECT to 0, then the output of the previous snippet will be

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=np.int8)
b = np.array([5, 6, 7], dtype=a.dtype())
print('a: ', a)
print('dtype of a: ', a.dtype())
print('\nb: ', b)
a:  array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int8)
dtype of a:  98

b:  array([5, 6, 7], dtype=int8)

Here 98 is nothing but the ASCII value of the character b, which is the type code for signed 8-bit integers.

.flatten

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.flatten.htm

.flatten returns the flattened array. The array can be flattened in C style (i.e., moving along the last axis in the tensor), or in fortran style (i.e., moving along the first axis in the tensor).

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=np.int8)
print("a: \t\t", a)
print("a flattened: \t", a.flatten())

b = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], dtype=np.int8)
print("\nb:", b)

print("b flattened (C): \t", b.flatten())
print("b flattened (F): \t", b.flatten(order='F'))
a:           array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int8)
a flattened:         array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int8)

b: array([[1, 2, 3],
    [4, 5, 6]], dtype=int8)
b flattened (C):     array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6], dtype=int8)
b flattened (F):     array([1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6], dtype=int8)

.itemsize

numpy: https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.itemsize.html

The .itemsize method (property) returns an integer with the size of elements in the array.

WARNING: In circuitpython:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\n", a)
print("itemsize of a:", a.itemsize)

b= np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]], dtype=np.float)
print("\nb:\n", b)
print("itemsize of b:", b.itemsize)
a:
 array([1, 2, 3], dtype=int8)
itemsize of a: 1

b:
 array([[1.0, 2.0],
     [3.0, 4.0]], dtype=float)
itemsize of b: 8

WARNING: In micropython:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\n", a)
print("itemsize of a:", a.itemsize)

b= np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]], dtype=np.float)
print("\nb:\n", b)
print("itemsize of b:", b.itemsize())
a:
 array([1, 2, 3], dtype=int8)
itemsize of a: 1

b:
 array([[1.0, 2.0],
     [3.0, 4.0]], dtype=float)
itemsize of b: 8

.reshape

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.reshape.html

reshape re-writes the shape properties of an ndarray, but the array will not be modified in any other way. The function takes a single 2-tuple with two integers as its argument. The 2-tuple should specify the desired number of rows and columns. If the new shape is not consistent with the old, a ValueError exception will be raised.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11, 12], [13, 14, 15, 16]], dtype=np.uint8)
print('a (4 by 4):', a)
print('a (2 by 8):', a.reshape((2, 8)))
print('a (1 by 16):', a.reshape((1, 16)))
a (4 by 4): array([[1, 2, 3, 4],
     [5, 6, 7, 8],
     [9, 10, 11, 12],
     [13, 14, 15, 16]], dtype=uint8)
a (2 by 8): array([[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8],
     [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]], dtype=uint8)
a (1 by 16): array([1, 2, 3, ..., 14, 15, 16], dtype=uint8)

.shape

numpy: https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.shape.html

The .shape method (property) returns a tuple with the length of the array in along each dimension.

WARNING: In circuitpython, you can call the method as a property, i.e.,

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\n", a)
print("shape of a:", a.shape)

b= np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]], dtype=np.int8)
print("\nb:\n", b)
print("shape of b:", b.shape)
a:
 array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int8)
shape of a: (1, 4)

b:
 array([[1, 2],
     [3, 4]], dtype=int8)
shape of b: (2, 2)

WARNING: On the other hand, since properties are not implemented in micropython, there you would call the method as a function, i.e.,

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\n", a)
print("shape of a:", a.shape)

b= np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]], dtype=np.int8)
print("\nb:\n", b)
print("shape of b:", b.shape())
a:
 array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int8)
shape of a: (1, 4)

b:
 array([[1, 2],
     [3, 4]], dtype=int8)
shape of b: (2, 2)

.size

numpy: https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.size.html

The .size method (property) returns an integer with the number of elements in the array.

WARNING: In circuitpython, the numpy nomenclature applies, i.e.,

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\n", a)
print("size of a:", a.size)

b= np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]], dtype=np.int8)
print("\nb:\n", b)
print("size of b:", b.size)
a:
 array([1, 2, 3], dtype=int8)
size of a: 3

b:
 array([[1, 2],
     [3, 4]], dtype=int8)
size of b: 4

WARNING: In micropython, size is a method, i.e.,

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\n", a)
print("size of a:", a.size)

b= np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]], dtype=np.int8)
print("\nb:\n", b)
print("size of b:", b.size())
a:
 array([1, 2, 3], dtype=int8)
size of a: 3

b:
 array([[1, 2],
     [3, 4]], dtype=int8)
size of b: 4

.tobytes

numpy: https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ndarray.tobytes.html

The .tobytes method can be used for acquiring a handle of the underlying data pointer of an array, and it returns a new bytearray that can be fed into any method that can accep a bytearray, e.g., ADC data can be buffered into this bytearray, or the bytearray can be fed into a DAC. Since the bytearray is really nothing but the bare data container of the array, any manipulation on the bytearray automatically modifies the array itself.

Note that the method raises a ValueError exception, if the array is not dense (i.e., it has already been sliced).

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(8), dtype=np.uint8)
print('a: ', a)
b = a.tobytes()
print('b: ', b)

# modify b
b[0] = 13

print('='*20)
print('b: ', b)
print('a: ', a)
a:  array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7], dtype=uint8)
b:  bytearray(b'x00x01x02x03x04x05x06x07')
====================
b:  bytearray(b'rx01x02x03x04x05x06x07')
a:  array([13, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7], dtype=uint8)

.transpose

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.transpose.html

Returns the transposed array. Only defined, if the number of maximum dimensions is larger than 1.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]], dtype=np.uint8)
print('a:\n', a)
print('shape of a:', a.shape())
a.transpose()
print('\ntranspose of a:\n', a)
print('shape of a:', a.shape())
a:
 array([[1, 2, 3],
     [4, 5, 6],
     [7, 8, 9],
     [10, 11, 12]], dtype=uint8)
shape of a: (4, 3)

transpose of a:
 array([[1, 4, 7, 10],
     [2, 5, 8, 11],
     [3, 6, 9, 12]], dtype=uint8)
shape of a: (3, 4)

.sort

numpy: https://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/reference/generated/numpy.sort.html

In-place sorting of an ndarray. For a more detailed exposition, see sort.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([[1, 12, 3, 0], [5, 3, 4, 1], [9, 11, 1, 8], [7, 10, 0, 1]], dtype=np.uint8)
print('\na:\n', a)
a.sort(axis=0)
print('\na sorted along vertical axis:\n', a)

a = np.array([[1, 12, 3, 0], [5, 3, 4, 1], [9, 11, 1, 8], [7, 10, 0, 1]], dtype=np.uint8)
a.sort(a, axis=1)
print('\na sorted along horizontal axis:\n', a)

a = np.array([[1, 12, 3, 0], [5, 3, 4, 1], [9, 11, 1, 8], [7, 10, 0, 1]], dtype=np.uint8)
a.sort(a, axis=None)
print('\nflattened a sorted:\n', a)
a:
 array([[1, 12, 3, 0],
     [5, 3, 4, 1],
     [9, 11, 1, 8],
     [7, 10, 0, 1]], dtype=uint8)

a sorted along vertical axis:
 array([[1, 3, 0, 0],
     [5, 10, 1, 1],
     [7, 11, 3, 1],
     [9, 12, 4, 8]], dtype=uint8)

a sorted along horizontal axis:
 array([[0, 1, 3, 12],
     [1, 3, 4, 5],
     [1, 8, 9, 11],
     [0, 1, 7, 10]], dtype=uint8)

flattened a sorted:
 array([0, 0, 1, ..., 10, 11, 12], dtype=uint8)

Unary operators

With the exception of len, which returns a single number, all unary operators manipulate the underlying data element-wise.

len

This operator takes a single argument, the array, and returns either the length of the first axis.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], dtype=np.uint8)
b = np.array([range(5), range(5), range(5), range(5)], dtype=np.uint8)

print("a:\t", a)
print("length of a: ", len(a))
print("shape of a: ", a.shape())
print("\nb:\t", b)
print("length of b: ", len(b))
print("shape of b: ", b.shape())
a:   array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], dtype=uint8)
length of a:  5
shape of a:  (1, 5)

b:   array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]], dtype=uint8)
length of b:  4
shape of b:  (4, 5)

The number returned by len is also the length of the iterations, when the array supplies the elements for an iteration (see later).

invert

The function is defined for integer data types (uint8, int8, uint16, and int16) only, takes a single argument, and returns the element-by-element, bit-wise inverse of the array. If a float is supplied, the function raises a ValueError exception.

With signed integers (int8, and int16), the results might be unexpected, as in the example below:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([0, -1, -100], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\t\t", a)
print("inverse of a:\t", ~a)

a = np.array([0, 1, 254, 255], dtype=np.uint8)
print("\na:\t\t", a)
print("inverse of a:\t", ~a)
a:           array([0, -1, -100], dtype=int8)
inverse of a:        array([-1, 0, 99], dtype=int8)

a:           array([0, 1, 254, 255], dtype=uint8)
inverse of a:        array([255, 254, 1, 0], dtype=uint8)

abs

This function takes a single argument, and returns the element-by-element absolute value of the array. When the data type is unsigned (uint8, or uint16), a copy of the array will be returned immediately, and no calculation takes place.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([0, -1, -100], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\t\t\t ", a)
print("absolute value of a:\t ", abs(a))
a:                    array([0, -1, -100], dtype=int8)
absolute value of a:          array([0, 1, 100], dtype=int8)

neg

This operator takes a single argument, and changes the sign of each element in the array. Unsigned values are wrapped.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([10, -1, 1], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\t\t", a)
print("negative of a:\t", -a)

b = np.array([0, 100, 200], dtype=np.uint8)
print("\nb:\t\t", b)
print("negative of b:\t", -b)
a:           array([10, -1, 1], dtype=int8)
negative of a:       array([-10, 1, -1], dtype=int8)

b:           array([0, 100, 200], dtype=uint8)
negative of b:       array([0, 156, 56], dtype=uint8)

pos

This function takes a single argument, and simply returns a copy of the array.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([10, -1, 1], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\t\t", a)
print("positive of a:\t", +a)
a:           array([10, -1, 1], dtype=int8)
positive of a:       array([10, -1, 1], dtype=int8)

Binary operators

ulab implements the +, -, *, /, **, <, >, <=, >=, ==, !=, +=, -=, *=, /=, **= binary operators that work element-wise. Broadcasting is available, meaning that the two operands do not even have to have the same shape. If the lengths along the respective axes are equal, or one of them is 1, or the axis is missing, the element-wise operation can still be carried out. A thorough explanation of broadcasting can be found under https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.broadcasting.html.

WARNING: note that relational operators (<, >, <=, >=, ==, !=) should have the ndarray on their left hand side, when compared to scalars. This means that the following works

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab
a = ulab.array([1, 2, 3])
print(a > 2)
array([False, False, True], dtype=bool)

while the equivalent statement, 2 < a, will raise a TypeError exception:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab
a = ulab.array([1, 2, 3])
print(2 < a)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/dev/shm/micropython.py", line 4, in <module>
TypeError: unsupported types for __lt__: 'int', 'ndarray'

WARNING: circuitpython users should use the equal, and not_equal operators instead of ==, and !=. See the section on array comparison for details.

Upcasting

Binary operations require special attention, because two arrays with different typecodes can be the operands of an operation, in which case it is not trivial, what the typecode of the result is. This decision on the result’s typecode is called upcasting. Since the number of typecodes in ulab is significantly smaller than in numpy, we have to define new upcasting rules. Where possible, I followed numpy’s conventions.

ulab observes the following upcasting rules:

  1. Operations on two ndarrays of the same dtype preserve their dtype, even when the results overflow.

  2. if either of the operands is a float, the result is automatically a float

  3. When one of the operands is a scalar, it will internally be turned into a single-element ndarray with the smallest possible dtype. Thus, e.g., if the scalar is 123, it will be converted into an array of dtype uint8, while -1000 will be converted into int16. An mp_obj_float, will always be promoted to dtype float. Other micropython types (e.g., lists, tuples, etc.) raise a TypeError exception.

left hand side

right hand side

ulab result

numpy result

uint8

int8

int16

int16

uint8

int16

int16

int16

uint8

uint16

uint16

uint16

int8

int16

int16

int16

int8

uint16

uint16

int32

uint16

int16

float

int32

Note that the last two operations are promoted to int32 in numpy.

WARNING: Due to the lower number of available data types, the upcasting rules of ulab are slightly different to those of numpy. Watch out for this, when porting code!

Upcasting can be seen in action in the following snippet:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=np.uint8)
b = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=np.int8)
print("a:\t", a)
print("b:\t", b)
print("a+b:\t", a+b)

c = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=np.float)
print("\na:\t", a)
print("c:\t", c)
print("a*c:\t", a*c)
a:   array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=uint8)
b:   array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int8)
a+b:         array([2, 4, 6, 8], dtype=int16)

a:   array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=uint8)
c:   array([1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0], dtype=float)
a*c:         array([1.0, 4.0, 9.0, 16.0], dtype=float)

Benchmarks

The following snippet compares the performance of binary operations to a possible implementation in python. For the time measurement, we will take the following snippet from the micropython manual:

# code to be run in micropython

import utime

def timeit(f, *args, **kwargs):
    func_name = str(f).split(' ')[1]
    def new_func(*args, **kwargs):
        t = utime.ticks_us()
        result = f(*args, **kwargs)
        print('execution time: ', utime.ticks_diff(utime.ticks_us(), t), ' us')
        return result
    return new_func
# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

@timeit
def py_add(a, b):
    return [a[i]+b[i] for i in range(1000)]

@timeit
def py_multiply(a, b):
    return [a[i]*b[i] for i in range(1000)]

@timeit
def ulab_add(a, b):
    return a + b

@timeit
def ulab_multiply(a, b):
    return a * b

a = [0.0]*1000
b = range(1000)

print('python add:')
py_add(a, b)

print('\npython multiply:')
py_multiply(a, b)

a = np.linspace(0, 10, num=1000)
b = np.ones(1000)

print('\nulab add:')
ulab_add(a, b)

print('\nulab multiply:')
ulab_multiply(a, b)
python add:
execution time:  10051  us

python multiply:
execution time:  14175  us

ulab add:
execution time:  222  us

ulab multiply:
execution time:  213  us

The python implementation above is not perfect, and certainly, there is much room for improvement. However, the factor of 50 difference in execution time is very spectacular. This is nothing but a consequence of the fact that the ulab functions run C code, with very little python overhead. The factor of 50 appears to be quite universal: the FFT routine obeys similar scaling (see Speed of FFTs), and this number came up with font rendering, too: fast font rendering on graphical displays.

Comparison operators

The smaller than, greater than, smaller or equal, and greater or equal operators return a vector of Booleans indicating the positions (True), where the condition is satisfied.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8], dtype=np.uint8)
print(a < 5)
array([True, True, True, True, False, False, False, False], dtype=bool)

WARNING: at the moment, due to micropython’s implementation details, the ndarray must be on the left hand side of the relational operators.

That is, while a < 5 and 5 > a have the same meaning, the following code will not work:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8], dtype=np.uint8)
print(5 > a)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/dev/shm/micropython.py", line 5, in <module>
TypeError: unsupported types for __gt__: 'int', 'ndarray'

Iterating over arrays

ndarrays are iterable, which means that their elements can also be accessed as can the elements of a list, tuple, etc. If the array is one-dimensional, the iterator returns scalars, otherwise a new reduced-dimensional view is created and returned.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], dtype=np.uint8)
b = np.array([range(5), range(10, 15, 1), range(20, 25, 1), range(30, 35, 1)], dtype=np.uint8)

print("a:\t", a)

for i, _a in enumerate(a):
    print("element %d in a:"%i, _a)

print("\nb:\t", b)

for i, _b in enumerate(b):
    print("element %d in b:"%i, _b)
a:   array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], dtype=uint8)
element 0 in a: 1
element 1 in a: 2
element 2 in a: 3
element 3 in a: 4
element 4 in a: 5

b:   array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
    [10, 11, 12, 13, 14],
    [20, 21, 22, 23, 24],
    [30, 31, 32, 33, 34]], dtype=uint8)
element 0 in b: array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=uint8)
element 1 in b: array([10, 11, 12, 13, 14], dtype=uint8)
element 2 in b: array([20, 21, 22, 23, 24], dtype=uint8)
element 3 in b: array([30, 31, 32, 33, 34], dtype=uint8)

Slicing and indexing

Views vs. copies

numpy has a very important concept called views, which is a powerful extension of python’s own notion of slicing. Slices are special python objects of the form

slice = start:end:stop

where start, end, and stop are (not necessarily non-negative) integers. Not all of these three numbers must be specified in an index, in fact, all three of them can be missing. The interpreter takes care of filling in the missing values. (Note that slices cannot be defined in this way, only there, where an index is expected.) For a good explanation on how slices work in python, you can read the stackoverflow question https://stackoverflow.com/questions/509211/understanding-slice-notation.

In order to see what slicing does, let us take the string a = '012345679'! We can extract every second character by creating the slice ::2, which is equivalent to 0:len(a):2, i.e., increments the character pointer by 2 starting from 0, and traversing the string up to the very end.

# code to be run in CPython

string = '0123456789'
string[::2]
'02468'

Now, we can do the same with numerical arrays.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(10), dtype=np.uint8)
print('a:\t', a)

print('a[::2]:\t', a[::2])
a:   array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], dtype=uint8)
a[::2]:      array([0, 2, 4, 6, 8], dtype=uint8)

This looks similar to string above, but there is a very important difference that is not so obvious. Namely, string[::2] produces a partial copy of string, while a[::2] only produces a view of a. What this means is that a, and a[::2] share their data, and the only difference between the two is, how the data are read out. In other words, internally, a[::2] has the same data pointer as a. We can easily convince ourselves that this is indeed the case by calling the ndinfo function: the data pointer entry is the same in the two printouts.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(10), dtype=np.uint8)
print('a: ', a, '\n')
np.ndinfo(a)
print('\n' + '='*20)
print('a[::2]: ', a[::2], '\n')
np.ndinfo(a[::2])
a:  array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], dtype=uint8)

class: ndarray
shape: (10,)
strides: (1,)
itemsize: 1
data pointer: 0x7ff6c6193220
type: uint8

====================
a[::2]:  array([0, 2, 4, 6, 8], dtype=uint8)

class: ndarray
shape: (5,)
strides: (2,)
itemsize: 1
data pointer: 0x7ff6c6193220
type: uint8

If you are still a bit confused about the meaning of views, the section Slicing and assigning to slices should clarify the issue.

Indexing

The simplest form of indexing is specifying a single integer between the square brackets as in

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(10), dtype=np.uint8)
print("a: ", a)
print("the first, and last element of a:\n", a[0], a[-1])
print("the second, and last but one element of a:\n", a[1], a[-2])
a:  array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], dtype=uint8)
the first, and last element of a:
 0 9
the second, and last but one element of a:
 1 8

Indexing can be applied to higher-dimensional tensors, too. When the length of the indexing sequences is smaller than the number of dimensions, a new view is returned, otherwise, we get a single number.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(9), dtype=np.uint8).reshape((3, 3))
print("a:\n", a)
print("a[0]:\n", a[0])
print("a[1,1]: ", a[1,1])
a:
 array([[0, 1, 2],
    [3, 4, 5],
    [6, 7, 8]], dtype=uint8)
a[0]:
 array([[0, 1, 2]], dtype=uint8)
a[1,1]:  4

Indices can also be a list of Booleans. By using a Boolean list, we can select those elements of an array that satisfy a specific condition. At the moment, such indexing is defined for row vectors only; when the rank of the tensor is higher than 1, the function raises a NotImplementedError exception, though this will be rectified in a future version of ulab.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(9), dtype=np.float)
print("a:\t", a)
print("a < 5:\t", a[a < 5])
a:   array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0], dtype=float)
a < 5:       array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0], dtype=float)

Indexing with Boolean arrays can take more complicated expressions. This is a very concise way of comparing two vectors, e.g.:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(9), dtype=np.uint8)
b = np.array([4, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 13, 13, 13], dtype=np.uint8)
print("a:\t", a)
print("\na**2:\t", a*a)
print("\nb:\t", b)
print("\n100*sin(b):\t", np.sin(b)*100.0)
print("\na[a*a > np.sin(b)*100.0]:\t", a[a*a > np.sin(b)*100.0])
a:   array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8], dtype=uint8)

a**2:        array([0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64], dtype=uint16)

b:   array([4, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 13, 13, 13], dtype=uint8)

100*sin(b):  array([-75.68024953079282, -75.68024953079282, -75.68024953079282, 14.11200080598672, 14.11200080598672, 14.11200080598672, 42.01670368266409, 42.01670368266409, 42.01670368266409], dtype=float)

a[a*a > np.sin(b)*100.0]:    array([0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8], dtype=uint8)

Boolean indices can also be used in assignments, if the array is one-dimensional. The following example replaces the data in an array, wherever some condition is fulfilled.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(9), dtype=np.uint8)
b = np.array(range(9)) + 12

print(a[b < 15])

a[b < 15] = 123
print(a)
array([0, 1, 2], dtype=uint8)
array([123, 123, 123, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8], dtype=uint8)

On the right hand side of the assignment we can even have another array.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array(range(9), dtype=np.uint8)
b = np.array(range(9)) + 12

print(a[b < 15], b[b < 15])

a[b < 15] = b[b < 15]
print(a)
array([0, 1, 2], dtype=uint8) array([12.0, 13.0, 14.0], dtype=float)
array([12, 13, 14, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8], dtype=uint8)

Slicing and assigning to slices

You can also generate sub-arrays by specifying slices as the index of an array. Slices are special python objects of the form

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.uint8)
print('a:\n', a)

# the first row
print('\na[0]:\n', a[0])

# the first two elements of the first row
print('\na[0,:2]:\n', a[0,:2])

# the zeroth element in each row (also known as the zeroth column)
print('\na[:,0]:\n', a[:,0])

# the last row
print('\na[-1]:\n', a[-1])

# the last two rows backwards
print('\na[-1:-3:-1]:\n', a[-1:-3:-1])
a:
 array([[1, 2, 3],
    [4, 5, 6],
    [7, 8, 9]], dtype=uint8)

a[0]:
 array([[1, 2, 3]], dtype=uint8)

a[0,:2]:
 array([[1, 2]], dtype=uint8)

a[:,0]:
 array([[1],
    [4],
    [7]], dtype=uint8)

a[-1]:
 array([[7, 8, 9]], dtype=uint8)

a[-1:-3:-1]:
 array([[7, 8, 9],
    [4, 5, 6]], dtype=uint8)

Assignment to slices can be done for the whole slice, per row, and per column. A couple of examples should make these statements clearer:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.zeros((3, 3), dtype=np.uint8)
print('a:\n', a)

# assigning to the whole row
a[0] = 1
print('\na[0] = 1\n', a)

a = np.zeros((3, 3), dtype=np.uint8)

# assigning to a column
a[:,2] = 3.0
print('\na[:,0]:\n', a)
a:
 array([[0, 0, 0],
    [0, 0, 0],
    [0, 0, 0]], dtype=uint8)

a[0] = 1
 array([[1, 1, 1],
    [0, 0, 0],
    [0, 0, 0]], dtype=uint8)

a[:,0]:
 array([[0, 0, 3],
    [0, 0, 3],
    [0, 0, 3]], dtype=uint8)

Now, you should notice that we re-set the array a after the first assignment. Do you care to see what happens, if we do not do that? Well, here are the results:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.zeros((3, 3), dtype=np.uint8)
b = a[:,:]
# assign 1 to the first row
b[0] = 1

# assigning to the last column
b[:,2] = 3
print('a: ', a)
a:  array([[1, 1, 3],
    [0, 0, 3],
    [0, 0, 3]], dtype=uint8)

Note that both assignments involved b, and not a, yet, when we print out a, its entries are updated. This proves our earlier statement about the behaviour of views: in the statement b = a[:,:] we simply created a view of a, and not a deep copy of it, meaning that whenever we modify b, we actually modify a, because the underlying data container of a and b are shared between the two object. Having a single data container for two seemingly different objects provides an extremely powerful way of manipulating sub-sets of numerical data.

If you want to work on a copy of your data, you can use the .copy method of the ndarray. The following snippet should drive the point home:

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.zeros((3, 3), dtype=np.uint8)
b = a.copy()

# get the address of the underlying data pointer

np.ndinfo(a)
print()
np.ndinfo(b)

# assign 1 to the first row of b, and do not touch a
b[0] = 1

print()
print('a: ', a)
print('='*20)
print('b: ', b)
class: ndarray
shape: (3, 3)
strides: (3, 1)
itemsize: 1
data pointer: 0x7ff737ea3220
type: uint8

class: ndarray
shape: (3, 3)
strides: (3, 1)
itemsize: 1
data pointer: 0x7ff737ea3340
type: uint8

a:  array([[0, 0, 0],
    [0, 0, 0],
    [0, 0, 0]], dtype=uint8)
====================
b:  array([[1, 1, 1],
    [0, 0, 0],
    [0, 0, 0]], dtype=uint8)

The .copy method can also be applied to views: below, a[0] is a view of a, out of which we create a deep copy called b. This is a row vector now. We can then do whatever we want to with b, and that leaves a unchanged.

# code to be run in micropython

import ulab as np

a = np.zeros((3, 3), dtype=np.uint8)
b = a[0].copy()
print('b: ', b)
print('='*20)
# assign 1 to the first entry of b, and do not touch a
b[0] = 1
print('a: ', a)
print('='*20)
print('b: ', b)
b:  array([0, 0, 0], dtype=uint8)
====================
a:  array([[0, 0, 0],
    [0, 0, 0],
    [0, 0, 0]], dtype=uint8)
====================
b:  array([1, 0, 0], dtype=uint8)

The fact that the underlying data of a view is the same as that of the original array has another important consequence, namely, that the creation of a view is cheap. Both in terms of RAM, and execution time. A view is really nothing but a short header with a data array that already exists, and is filled up. Hence, creating the view requires only the creation of its header. This operation is fast, and uses virtually no RAM.

# code to be run in CPython